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1. Introduction
1. Introduction
Introduction
Solar Energy
The Greenhouse Effect
2. Properties of Sunlight
2. Properties of Sunlight
2.1. Basics of Light
Properties of Light
Energy of Photon
Photon Flux
Spectral Irradiance
Radiant Power Density
2.2. Blackbody Radiation
2.3. Solar Radiation
The Sun
Solar Radiation in Space
2.4. Terrestrial Solar Radiation
Solar Radiation Outside the Earth's Atmosphere
Atmospheric Effects
Air Mass
Motion of the Sun
Solar Time
Declination Angle
Elevation Angle
Azimuth Angle
The Sun's Position
Sun Position Calculator
Sun's Position to High Accuracy
Solar Radiation on a Tilted Surface
Arbitrary Orientation and Tilt
2.5. Solar Radiation Data
Calculation of Solar Insolation
Measurement of Solar Radiation
Analysis of Solar Irradiance Data Sets
Typical Meteorological Year Data (TMY)
Making Use of TMY Data
Average Solar Radiation
Isoflux Contour Plots
Sunshine Hour Data
Cloud Cover Data
Satellite Irradiance
3. Semiconductors & Junctions
3. Semiconductors & Junctions
Introduction
3.1. Basics
Semiconductor Materials
Semiconductor Structure
Conduction in Semiconductors
Band Gap
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
Doping
Equilibrium Carrier Concentration
3.2. Generation
Absorption of Light
Absorption Coefficient
Absorption Depth
Generation Rate
3.3. Recombination
Types of Recombination
Lifetime
Diffusion Length
Surface Recombination
3.4. Carrier Transport
Movement of Carriers in Semiconductors
Diffusion
Drift
3.5. P-n Junctions
Formation of a PN-Junction
P-N Junction Diodes
Bias of PN Junctions
Diode Equation
3.6. Diode Equations for PV
Ideal Diode Equation Derivation
Basic Equations
Applying the Basic Equations to a PN Junction
Solving for Depletion Region
Solving for Quasi Neutral Regions
Finding Total Current
Eg1: Wide Base Diode
Eg2: Narrow Base Diode
Summary
4. Solar Cell Operation
4. Solar Cell Operation
4.1. Ideal Solar Cells
Solar Cell Structure
Light Generated Current
Collection Probability
Quantum Efficiency
Spectral Response
The Photovoltaic Effect
4.2. Solar Cell Parameters
IV Curve
Short-Circuit Current
Open-Circuit Voltage
Fill Factor
Efficiency
Detailed Balance
Tandem Cells
4.3. Resistive Effects
Characteristic Resistance
Effect of Parasitic Resistances
Series Resistance
Shunt Resistance
Impact of Both Series and Shunt Resistance
4.4. Other Effects
Effect of Temperature
Effect of Light Intensity
Ideality Factor
5. Design of Silicon Cells
5. Design of Silicon Cells
Solar Cell Design Principles
5.1. Optical Properties
Optical Losses
Anti-Reflection Coatings
AR Coating Color
DLARC
Surface Texturing
Material Thickness
Light Trapping
Lambertian Rear Reflectors
5.2. Reducing Recombination
Recombination Losses
Current Losses Due to Recombination
Voltage Losses due to Recombination
Surface Recombination
5.3. Top Contact Design
Series Resistance
Base Resistance
Sheet Resistivity
Emitter Resistance
Contact Resistance
Finger Resistance
Optimization of Finger Spacing
Metal Grid Pattern
5.4. Solar Cell Structure
Silicon Solar Cell Parameters
Efficiency and Solar Cell Cost
6. Manufacturing Si Cells
6. Manufacturing Si Cells
First Photovoltaic devices
Early Silicon Cells
6.1. Silicon Wаfers & Substrates
Refining Silicon
Types Of Silicon
Single Crystalline Silicon
Czochralski Silicon
Float Zone Silicon
Multi Crystalline Silicon
Wafer Slicing
Other Wafering Techniques
6.2. Processing Technologies
Solid State Diffusion
6.3. Cell Fabrication Technologies
Screen Printed Solar Cells
Buried Contact Solar Cells
High Efficiency Solar Cells
Rear Contact Solar Cells
6.4. Solar Cell Production Line
Source Material
Growing Ingots
Sawing the Ingot into Bricks
Wafer Slicing
Texturing
Emitter Diffusion
Edge Isolation
Anti Reflection Coatings
Screen Print Front
Screen Print Rear Aluminium
Screen Print Rear Silver
Firing
Testing
Module
7. Modules and Arrays
7. Modules and Arrays
Introduction
7.1. Module Design
Module Structure
Module Materials
Packing Density
7.2. Interconnection Effects
Module Circuit Design
Mismatch Effects
Mismatch for Cells Connected in Series
Shading
Hot Spot Heating
Bypass Diodes
Mismatch for Cells Connected in Parallel
Mismatch Effects in Arrays
7.3. Temperature Effects
PV Module Temperature
Heat Generation in PV Modules
Heat Loss in PV Modules
Nominal Operating Cell Temperature
Thermal Expansion and Thermal Stresses
7.4. Other Considerations
Electrical and Mechanical Insulation
7.5. Lifetime of PV Modules
Degradation and Failure Modes
7.6. Module Measurement
Module Measurement without Load
Module Measurement with Load
8. Characterization
8. Characterization
Introduction
8.1 Measurement of Solar Cell Efficiency
Illumination Sources
Temperature Control
Electronics
Probing
8.2. Other IV Measurements
Dark IV Measurements
Jsc-Voc and Suns-Voc
8.3. IV Characterization
Measurement of Series Resistance
Double Diode Model
Measuring Ideality Factor
8.4. Optical Characterization
Reflectance
Spectral Response
Laser Beam Induced Current
8.5. Lifetime
Bulk Lifetime
Surface Recombination
Transient Measurements
Quasi-Steady-State Lifetime Measurements
General Lifetime Measurements
Effect of Trapping on Lifetime Measurements
8.6. Luminescence
Electroluminescence
8.7. Simulation
Introduction to Simulation
PC1D
Tandem Calculations
2D Modeling
SEM and EBIC
Four Point Probe Resistivity Measurements
9. Material Properties
9. Material Properties
General Properties of Silicon
Optical Properties of Silicon
Bi2S3
CZTSSe Theory and Fabrication
CdS
CdSe
CuInSe2
CuO
CuS
FeS2
Mg2Si
MnS
SnS
TiS2
ZnSe
10. Batteries
10. Batteries
Storage in PV Systems
10.2 Battery Basics
Oxidation/Reduction Reaction
Electrochemical Potential
Standard Potential
Nernst Equation
Basic Battery Operation
Ideal battery capacity
10.3 Battery Non-equilibrium
10.4. Battery Characteristics
Battery Efficiency
Battery Capacity
Battery Charging and Discharging Parameters
Battery Lifetime and Maintenance
Battery Voltage
Other Electrical Battery Parameters
Summary and Comparison of Battery Characteristics
10.5. Lead Acid Batteries
Characteristics of Lead Acid Batteries
Operation of Lead Acid Batteries
10.6. Other Battery Types
10.7 Function and Use of Storage
11. Appendices
11. Appendices
Solar Cell Efficiency Records
Standard Solar Spectra
Periodic Table
Units and Conversions
Physical Constants
Equations for Photovoltaics
Korean Version PDF
Equations
Flash Animations
Interactive Graphs
References
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Author
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A., Wang
Abbar, B.
Aberle, Armin G
Adachi, Sadao
Adams, W G
Adhikari, Nirmal
Agrawal, Rakesh
Agui, T
Akhavan, Vahid
Akiyama, Tsuyoshi
al
Alarcón-Padilla, Diego C
Alarcón-Padilla, Diego C.
Alivisatos, Paul
Altermatt, Pietro P
Anandan, Sambandam
Andreas, A
Anwar, K K
Aourag, H.
Arai, Eisuke
Araki, Hideaki
Aslani, Alireza
Atanassov, A.
Auger, P
Augusto, André
Avellaneda, David
Aven, M.
Backus, C E
Baeg, Kang-Jun
Bailey, William L
Baker-Finch, Simeon C.
Balasubramanian, V
Baleva, M.
Barron, A
Barthelmy, D.
Baruch, P
Basore, P A
Bauer, Gerhard
Bazmandegan-Shamili, Alireza
Becquerel, A E
Bell, R. O.
Bender, H
Benhelal, O.
Benjamin, P
Bensebaa, Farid
Beresford, Roderic
Berge, Christopher
Bergmann, L
Berry, Nicholas
Bett, A W
Birch, Francis
Bird, Richard E.
Blake, R
Blakers, Andrew W
Blanco-Muriel, Manuel
Blanco-Muriel, Manuel
Bohne, W.
Botero, M.
Bothe, Karsten
Bouhafs, B.
Bouvier, P
Bowden, Stuart G.
Bowden, S
Bowden, Stuart
Brady, George S
Brandhorst, E W
Braun, F
Bremner, S P
Broder, J D
Brody, Jed
Brooks, B G
Brueck, S
Brunvoll, J.
Bube, Richard H.
Bucher, E
Bullitt, J.
Bunea, Gabriela
Burgess, E L
Bush, R. I.
Calderon, C.
Calixto, M.E.
Calixto-Rodriguez, M.
Calligarich, C.
Campbell, Patrick
Campbell, Matthew
Campos-Alvarez, J.
Caracas, Razvan
Card, H C
Cardona, Manuel
Carr, A J
Carter, Nathaniel J.
Çelik, Yasemin
Çelik, Yasemin
Ceuster, Denis De
Chahed, A.
Chandramohan, R.
Chapin, D M
Chauhan, Diwakar
Chen, Shiyou
Cheng, Li-Jen
Ching, W.
Choi, Joshua J.
Choi, Woo Jin
Chong, C M
Choopun, Supab
Ciobanu, Madalina
Clauser, Henry R
Cliffel, David E.
Cody, G D
Colella, R
Colella, R
Coleman, Michael G
Conrad, E E
Conroy, Lawrence E.
Cooper, P I
Corathers, Lisa A.
Corkish, R
Cotter, J E
Cousins, P
Cousins, Peter J
Crane, R A
Crelling, John C.
Cudzinovic, M
Cuevas, Andrés
Cuya, Jhon
Czochralski, J
Dai, X
Dai, L.
Dale, B
Dass, Sahab
Day, R E
De Ceuster, D
De Vos, A
Dennis, Tim D
Dera, P
Desai, J.D.
Devika, M.
Diesner, K.
Dimroth, F
Dittrich, H
Downs, R. T.
Drábek, Milan
Dubey, Ashish
Durand, S
Duvall, T. L.
E44 Committee
Eades, Wendell D
Ehm, L
Einhaus, R
Einstein, A
Ellmer, K.
Ellmer, Klaus
Emery, Keith
Emery, K
Emilio, M.
Endo, Saburo
Ennaoui, A.
Fahey, P
Faile, S P
Ferrazza, Francesca
Ferrer, I J
Feynman, R P
Filliben, J J
Filliben
Fonash, Stephen J
Forman, Richard
Fossum, J G
Friedlmeier, Th Magorian
Fritts, C E
Fukui, K
Fuller, C S
Furuseth, Sigrid
Fuyuki, Takashi
Gambold, J
Ganesan, R.
Gao, Chunxiao
Gardchareon, Atcharawon
Geelhaar, Frank
Ghandhi, Sorab K.
Ghim, Jieun
Ghosh, Kunal
Gibbs, Markelle
Giersig, M.
Glunz, Stefan W.
Goetzberger, Adolf
Gokmen, Tayfun
Gong, XG
Gonze, Xavier
Goodfellow, Brian
Gopal, E. S. R.
Gordillo, G.
Green, Martin A
Green, M.A.
Grondahl, L O
Guang-Pu, Wei
Gueymard, Christian
Gueymard, Christian A.
Guha, Supratik
Gul, Sheraz
Gümüş, C.
Gunasekhar, K. R.
Gunawan, Oki
Guo, Jinghua
Guo, Qijie
Gupta, S.K.
Guter, W
Haas, C.
Hages, Charles J.
Hall, R N
Hall-Wallace, M.
Hammond, B
Han, Yonghao
Hanasoge, S. M.
Hando, Shima
Hanrath, Tobias
Hansen, B
Hansen, J
Hao, Xiaojing
Harley, Gabriel
Harris, Cynthia B
Hawkins, Aaron
Hegedus, S
Heide, A S H
Heikens, H.H.
Heiser, G
Heiser, Gernot
Henrie, Justin
Heras, de las
Herasimenka, Stanislau Y.
Hezel, R
Hildebrandt, A F
Hillhouse, Hugh W.
Hinton, Merv
Hishikawa, Yoshihiro
Hoffmann, Volker Uwe
Hong, Feng
Honsberg, Christiana B
Honsberg, Christiana
Horzel, J
Horzum, Şeyda
Hoshino, Suguro
Hsu, W. C.
Hsu, B.
Hu, Tingjing
Hu, C
Hu, S M
Huang, Jialiang
Hung, Andrew
Ichimura, Masaya
Imai, Yoji
Imazumi, M
Ineichen, Pierre
Inomata, Y
Irie, Taizo
Ito, Kentaro
Jäger-Waldau, A.
Jain, A
JEYADEVAN, Balachandran
Jimbo, Kazuo
Jones, G
Jordan, D
Juhaiman, Layla Al
Juso, H
Kaiser, W J
Kale, R.B
Kang, Seok-Ju
Kang, Dong Heon
Kaprzyk, S.
Kasten, Fritz
Katagiri, Hironori
Kaviani, Karim
Keevers, Mark J
Kellis, Spencer
Keogh, W
Kerr, Mark J
Kerr, R A
Kido, Hiroyasu
KIDOWAKI, Hiroki
Kiesewetter, Tobias
KIKUCHI, Shiomi
KIKUCHI, Kenji
Kim, Dong-Yu
Kim, Jin Ho
Kimura, Shigeo
King, F.D.
King, D
King, Richard R.
Kingsbury, E F
Kingston, David
Kjekshus, Arne
Klementová, Mariana
Knight, K.S.
Knobloch, J
Knorr, K
Kodama, T
Koeper, Mark J.
Kondo, Hayato
Koo, Bonil
Korgel, Brian A
Krimmel, A
Kuhn, J. R.
Kukimoto, H.
Kukkonen, C A
Kukkonen, C A
Kumar, Nigvendra
Kumar, Mukesh
Kunst, M.
Laksari, S.
Lan, C. W.
Landsberg, P T
Lara-Coira, MartÍn
Lara-Coira, MartÍn
Laue, E G
Law, Matt
Lehner, Stephen
Leo, T.
Lesk, Israel A
Levy, M Y
Lewkebandara, T.S.
Lim, Yee-Fun
Lim, C. T.
Lin, Wenjun
Lind, Edward L.
Lindholm, F A
Liu, Bao
Liu, Fangyang
Liu, Cailong
Liu, Y M
Liu
Logothetis, E M
Logothetis, E M
Lokhande, C.D.
Lokhande, C.D
López-Moratalla, Teodoro
López-Moratalla, Teodoro
Luan, Hsin-Chiao
Luke, K L
Luke, Keung L
Luque, A
Lux-Steiner, M.Ch.
Ma, Yanzhang
Macdonald, Daniel
Mack, M
Madelung, O
Mahalingam, T.
Major, S.S.
Mane, R.S.
Manning, Jane
Markvart, Tomas
Martinez, H.
Maruyama, Toshiro
Masetti, G
Mattis
Mattis, R L
Maw, Win Shwe
McDanal, A J
McIntosh, Keith R.
McIntosh, K R
Mehrvarz, H R
Meinel, A B
Meinel, M P
Meng, Weiwei
Mertens, R
Mertens, R P
Merz, J. L.
Mette, A
Meydbray, Yevgeny
Meyers, Edward A.
Mezouar, M
Michalsky, Joseph
Milne, R. M.
Misiakos, Konstantinos
Misiakos, K
Mitzi, David B.
Mitzi, David B
MOTOYOSHI, Ryosuke
Mukaida, Masakazu
Muller, M.
Mulligan, William P
Mulligan, W
Muscat, Joseph
Muthe, K.P.
Muthukumarasamy, N
Myers, D
Nagatomo, T.
Nagel, Henning
Nagle, J P
Nair, P. K.
Nair, M. T. S.
Nakaido, K
Nakamura, K
Nakazawa, Tatsuo
Narayanan, S
Narayanan, Srinivasamohan
NASA
Nassau, K.
Nayak, P.K.
Nelson, Jenny
Neugroschel, A
Nijs, J
Niklasson, Rune J. V.
Nilphai, Sanpet
Nix, F C
Nlis, J F
Noguchi, H.
Nussbaumer, H
Observatory, U. S. Naval
Ohashi, Jiro
Ohl, R S
Oishi, Koichiro
OKU, Takeo
Oliva, E
Omoto, O.
Outhred, H.
O’Neil, M J
Panthani, Matthew G
Parhizkar, M.
Park, Kyu Chang
Park, Jeong-Ho
Park, Hongsik
Park, Jeong-Woo
Parrott, J E
Patarachao, Bussaraporn
Pathirana, Hema M. K. K.
Patil, P.S.
Pearson, G. L.
Pearson, G L
Perez, Richard
Perez, Bartolo
Pfann, W G
Philipps, S P
Pizzini, S.
Pizzini, Sergio
Planck, M
Pliskin, W A
Prabahar, S
Puthussery, James
PYSCH, D
Qiao, Qiquan
Queisser, Hans J
Rai, G D
Raksa, Phathaitep
Ralph, J. R
Ramesh, K.
Ramírez, F. J.
Ranjbar-Karimi, Reza
Rauschenbach, H
Read, W T
Reda, I
Reddy, Koteeswara
Reddy, K. T. Ramakri
Reddy, K.T. Ramakrishn
Rein, S
Ren, Wanbin
Richter, Armin
Rieder, Milan
Rincón, C.
Riordan, Carol
ROBERTSON, FORBES
Robins, B.
Robinson, S J
Roche, D M
Rohatgi, A
Rohatgi, Ajeet
Röhrich, J.
Romero, E.
Rose, D
Rosenthal, A
Ross, R G
Ross, Jnr. R G
Roy, M
Ruby, D S
Rudenberg, H G
Rumberg, A.
Rummel, S
Russo, Salvy
Şahin, Ş.
Sanchez, C
Sanchez-Juarez, A.
Sanjeeviraja, C.
Sankapal, B.R.
Sasaguchi, Nobuyuki
Sasaki, K
Sato, Naoya
Satsangi, VR
Savage, Kaye
Schaefer, J
Schenk, Andreas
Schlueter, L
Schmidt, Jan
Schock, HW
Scholl, I. F.
Schöne, J
Schroder, Dieter
Schultz, Stephen
Scoles, Ludmila
Seals, Robert
Seefeld, Sean
Sekuler, R
SERI
Serin, ülay
Serin, Tülay
Serin, Necmi
Serin, N.
Serin, T.
Serin, Necmi
Serreze, H B
Severi, M
Shewchun, J.
Shiever, J. W.
Shirasawa, K
Shive, J N
Shockley, William
Shrivastav, Rohit
Siefer, G
Simmons, Gene
Sims, V L
Singh, Sukhvinder
Sinton, Ronald A
Sinton, R A
Sinton, Ron
Sivoththaman, S
Smith, David D
Smith, C.
Smits, F M
Smokler, M I
Solmi, S
Sommerhalter, Ch.
Sow, C. H.
Sproul, A B
Sreenivasan, K. R.
Srinivasa, R.S.
Steiner, M
Steinhagen, Chet
Stewart, Ronald
Stocks, M J
Streetman, Ben G
Stride, John A.
Sun, Kaiwen
Suryanarayanan, N
Šustai, Ondřej
Sutton, P
SUZUKI, Atsushi
Swanson, Richard M
Szlufcik, J
Taguchi, Tsunemasa
Takahashi, Yu
Takahashi, M
Takamoto, T
Takeuchi, Akiko
Talwar, S.S.
Tan, E. P. S.
Tan, V. B. C.
Tanamura, H.
Tani, Jun-ichi
Terry, Mason L.
Thomas, B.
Thompson, Arthur H
Thurber, W R
Tiburcio-Silver, A.
Tiedje, T
Tobola, J.
Todorov, Teodor K
Todorov, Teodor K.
Toplak, M.
Treptwo, A W
Tributsch, Helmut
Tributsch, H.
Tsai, J.C.C.
Tsamakis, Dimitris
Ufuktepe, Y.
Ulutaş, C.
Union, International Astronomic
Uraoka, Yukiharu
Vaccari, John A
Van Bruggen, C.F.
Van-Overstraeten, R
Vant-Hull, L L
Vazquez, F.
Vazsonyi, E
Venkatesan, Swaminathan
Verlinden, P J
Volkman, Steven K.
Wadia, Cyrus
Wald, F. V.
Waldhaue, Ann
Walsh, Aron
Walter, Th
Wang, Dashan
Wang, A
Wang, Wei
Wang, Kejia
Wang, Aihua
Wang, E Y
Wang, C H
Warta, W
Warta, Wilhelm
Washio, H
Watanabe, Akio
Watt, M E
Wei, Su-Huai
Wei-Ming, Zhao
Wei-Qun, Chen
Weiss, Zdeněk
Wekkeli, A
Welser, E
Wen, Xiaogang
Wenger, H J
Wenham, Stuart R
Wenham, S R
Werner, Florian
Wettling, W
White, R M
Whittingham, Stanley M
Wieser, N
Willeke, G
Wilson, Karen
Wilson, Karen E
Winkler, Mark T
Winter, Charles H.
Wohlgemuth, J H
Wolf, M
Woods, J
Wooster, W A
Wu, Yue
Würfel, Peter
Wyckoff, Ralph W G
Xiang-Hong, Gao
Xu, Yong-Nian
Xu, Jimmy
Yablonovich, E
Yamaguchi, M.
Yamaguchi, H
Yamazaki, Yoshihisa
Yamazaki, Makoto
Yamazaki, Tsutomu
Yan, Yanfa
Yan, Chang
Yang, Y. M.
Yang, E S
Yang, Shihe
Yang, P
Yang, Jie
Yang, A.
Yarovsky, Irene
Yildiz, A.
Yokota, Takaharu
Yoon, Ki Hyun
Yoshida, A
Young, Andrew T
Yu, F T S
Yu, A.
Yu, T.
Yun, F
Zaidi, S
Zerubavel, Eviatar
Zhang, G
Zhao, J
Zhao, Jianhua
Zhi-Lin, Zhang
Zhou, Fangzhou
Zhu, Yu
Zhu, Y.
Zingaro, Ralph A.
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