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  • Instructions
  • Welcome
  • Acknowledgements
  • 1. Introduction
  • 2. Properties of Sunlight
  • 3. Semiconductors & Junctions
  • 4. Solar Cell Operation
  • 5. Design of Silicon Cells
  • 6. Manufacturing Si Cells
  • 7. Modules and Arrays
  • 8. Characterization
  • 9. Material Properties
  • 10. Batteries
  • 11. Appendices
  • Korean Version PDF
  • Equations
  • Interactive Graphs
  • References

List of Graphs

Anti-Reflection Coatings
Blackbody Radiation
Calculation of Solar Insolation
Collection Probability
Diffusion
Diode Equation
Double Diode Model
Double Layer Anti Reflection Coatings
Effect of Light Intensity
Generation Rate
Impact of Both Series and Shunt Resistance
Jsc-Voc
Material Thickness
Measurement of Series Resistance
Measuring Ideality Factor
Mismatch for Cells Connected in Parallel
Module Circuit Design
Optimization of Finger Spacing
Quantum Efficiency
Series Resistance
Shunt Resistance
Solar Radiation on a Tilted Surface
Solid State Diffusion
Spectral Response
Sun Position Calculator
Transient Measurements
Christiana Honsberg
and Stuart Bowden
  • Instructions
  • Welcome
  • Acknowledgements
  • 1. Introduction
    • Introduction
    • Solar Energy
    • The Greenhouse Effect
  • 2. Properties of Sunlight
    • 2.1. Basics of Light
    • Properties of Light
    • Energy of Photon
    • Photon Flux
    • Spectral Irradiance
    • Radiant Power Density
    • 2.2. Blackbody Radiation
    • 2.3. Solar Radiation
    • The Sun
    • Solar Radiation in Space
    • 2.4. Terrestrial Solar Radiation
    • Solar Radiation Outside the Earth's Atmosphere
    • Atmospheric Effects
    • Air Mass
    • Motion of the Sun
    • Solar Time
    • Declination Angle
    • Elevation Angle
    • Azimuth Angle
    • The Sun's Position
    • Sun Position Calculator
    • Sun's Position to High Accuracy
    • Solar Radiation on a Tilted Surface
    • Arbitrary Orientation and Tilt
    • 2.5. Solar Radiation Data
    • Calculation of Solar Insolation
    • Measurement of Solar Radiation
    • Analysis of Solar Irradiance Data Sets
    • Typical Meteorological Year Data (TMY)
    • Making Use of TMY Data
    • Average Solar Radiation
    • Isoflux Contour Plots
    • Sunshine Hour Data
    • Cloud Cover Data
    • Satellite Irradiance
  • 3. Semiconductors & Junctions
    • Introduction
    • 3.1. Basics
    • Semiconductor Materials
    • Semiconductor Structure
    • Conduction in Semiconductors
    • Band Gap
    • Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
    • Doping
    • Equilibrium Carrier Concentration
    • 3.2. Generation
    • Absorption of Light
    • Absorption Coefficient
    • Absorption Depth
    • Generation Rate
    • 3.3. Recombination
    • Types of Recombination
    • Minority-Carrier Lifetime
    • Diffusion Length
    • Surface Recombination
    • 3.4. Carrier Transport
    • Movement of Carriers in Semiconductors
    • Diffusion
    • Drift
    • 3.5. P-n Junctions
    • Formation of a PN-Junction
    • P-N Junction Diodes
    • Bias of PN Junctions
    • Diode Equation
    • 3.6. Diode Equations for PV
    • Ideal Diode Equation Derivation
    • Basic Equations
    • Applying the Basic Equations to a PN Junction
    • Solving for Depletion Region
    • Solving for Quasi Neutral Regions
    • Finding Total Current
    • Eg1: Wide Base Diode
    • Eg2: Narrow Base Diode
    • Summary
  • 4. Solar Cell Operation
    • 4.1. Ideal Solar Cells
    • Solar Cell Structure
    • Light Generated Current
    • Collection Probability
    • Quantum Efficiency
    • Spectral Response
    • The Photovoltaic Effect
    • 4.2. Solar Cell Parameters
    • IV Curve
    • Short-Circuit Current
    • Open-Circuit Voltage
    • Fill Factor
    • Efficiency
    • Detailed Balance
    • Tandem Cells
    • 4.3. Resistive Effects
    • Characteristic Resistance
    • Effect of Parasitic Resistances
    • Series Resistance
    • Shunt Resistance
    • Impact of Both Series and Shunt Resistance
    • 4.4. Other Effects
    • Effect of Temperature
    • Effect of Light Intensity
    • Ideality Factor
  • 5. Design of Silicon Cells
    • Solar Cell Design Principles
    • 5.1. Optical Properties
    • Optical Losses
    • Anti-Reflection Coatings
    • AR Coating Color
    • DLARC
    • Surface Texturing
    • Material Thickness
    • Light Trapping
    • Lambertian Rear Reflectors
    • 5.2. Reducing Recombination
    • Recombination Losses
    • Current Losses Due to Recombination
    • Voltage Losses due to Recombination
    • Surface Recombination
    • 5.3. Top Contact Design
    • Series Resistance
    • Base Resistance
    • Sheet Resistivity
    • Emitter Resistance
    • Contact Resistance
    • Finger Resistance
    • Optimization of Finger Spacing
    • Metal Grid Pattern
    • 5.4. Solar Cell Structure
    • Silicon Solar Cell Parameters
    • Efficiency and Solar Cell Cost
  • 6. Manufacturing Si Cells
    • First Photovoltaic devices
    • Early Silicon Cells
    • 6.1. Silicon Wаfers & Substrates
    • Refining Silicon
    • Types Of Silicon
    • Single Crystalline Silicon
    • Czochralski Silicon
    • Float Zone Silicon
    • Multi Crystalline Silicon
    • Wafer Slicing
    • Other Wafering Techniques
    • 6.2. Processing Technologies
    • Solid State Diffusion
    • 6.3. Cell Fabrication Technologies
    • Screen Printed Solar Cells
    • Buried Contact Solar Cells
    • High Efficiency Solar Cells
    • Rear Contact Solar Cells
    • 6.4. Solar Cell Production Line
    • Source Material
    • Growing Ingots
    • Sawing the Ingot into Bricks
    • Wafer Slicing
    • Texturing
    • Emitter Diffusion
    • Edge Isolation
    • Anti Reflection Coatings
    • Screen Print Front
    • Screen Print Rear Aluminium
    • Screen Print Rear Silver
    • Firing
    • Testing
    • Module
  • 7. Modules and Arrays
    • Introduction
    • 7.1. Module Design
    • Module Structure
    • Module Materials
    • Packing Density
    • 7.2. Interconnection Effects
    • Module Circuit Design
    • Mismatch Effects
    • Mismatch for Cells Connected in Series
    • Shading
    • Hot Spot Heating
    • Bypass Diodes
    • Mismatch for Cells Connected in Parallel
    • Mismatch Effects in Arrays
    • 7.3. Temperature Effects
    • PV Module Temperature
    • Heat Generation in PV Modules
    • Heat Loss in PV Modules
    • Nominal Operating Cell Temperature
    • Thermal Expansion and Thermal Stresses
    • 7.4. Other Considerations
    • Electrical and Mechanical Insulation
    • 7.5. Lifetime of PV Modules
    • Degradation and Failure Modes
    • 7.6. Module Measurement
    • Module Measurement without Load
    • Module Measurement with Load
  • 8. Characterization
    • Introduction
    • 8.1 Measurement of Solar Cell Efficiency
    • Illumination Sources
    • Temperature Control
    • Electronics
    • Probing
    • 8.2. Other IV Measurements
    • Dark IV Measurements
    • Jsc-Voc
    • 8.3. IV Characterization
    • SunsVoc
    • Measurement of Series Resistance
    • Double Diode Model
    • Measuring Ideality Factor
    • 8.4. Optical Characterization
    • Reflectance
    • Spectral Response
    • Laser Beam Induced Current
    • 8.5. Lifetime
    • Bulk Lifetime
    • Surface Recombination
    • Transient Measurements
    • Quasi-Steady-State Lifetime Measurements
    • General Lifetime Measurements
    • Effect of Trapping on Lifetime Measurements
    • 8.6. Luminescence
    • Electroluminescence
    • 8.7. Simulation
    • Introduction to Simulation
    • PC1D
    • Tandem Calculations
    • 2D Modeling
    • SEM and EBIC
    • Four Point Probe Resistivity Measurements
  • 9. Material Properties
    • General Properties of Silicon
    • Optical Properties of Silicon
    • Bi2S3
    • CZTSSe Theory and Fabrication
    • CdS
    • CdSe
    • CuInSe2
    • CuO
    • CuS
    • FeS2
    • Mg2Si
    • MnS
    • SnS
    • TiS2
    • ZnSe
  • 10. Batteries
    • Storage in PV Systems
    • 10.2 Battery Basics
    • Oxidation/Reduction Reaction
    • Electrochemical Potential
    • Nernst Equation
    • Basic Battery Operation
    • Ideal battery capacity
    • 10.3 Battery Non-equilibrium
    • 10.4. Battery Characteristics
    • Battery Efficiency
    • Battery Capacity
    • Battery Charging and Discharging Parameters
    • Battery Lifetime and Maintenance
    • Battery Voltage
    • Other Electrical Battery Parameters
    • Summary and Comparison of Battery Characteristics
    • 10.5. Lead Acid Batteries
    • Characteristics of Lead Acid Batteries
    • Operation of Lead Acid Batteries
    • 10.6. Other Battery Types
    • 10.7 Function and Use of Storage
  • 11. Appendices
    • Solar Cell Efficiency Records
    • Standard Solar Spectra
    • Periodic Table
    • Units and Conversions
    • Physical Constants
    • Equations for Photovoltaics
    • Equations in TEX
    • Graphs with Sliders
  • Korean Version PDF
  • Equations
  • Interactive Graphs
  • References
EquationsReferences