@article {feurer2017progress, title = {Progress in thin film CIGS photovoltaics{\textendash}Research and development, manufacturing, and applications}, journal = {Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications}, volume = {25}, year = {2017}, pages = {645{\textendash}667}, author = {Feurer, Thomas and Reinhard, Patrick and Avancini, Enrico and Bissig, Benjamin and L{\"o}ckinger, Johannes and Fuchs, Peter and Carron, Romain and Weiss, Thomas Paul and Perrenoud, Julian and Stutterheim, Stephan and Buecheler, Stephan and Tiwari, Ayodhya N.} } @article {Mitzi2011, title = {The path towards a high-performance solution-processed kesterite solar cell}, journal = {Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells}, volume = {95}, year = {2011}, pages = {1421 - 1436}, abstract = {Despite the promise of thin-film Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2 (CIGSSe) chalcopyrite and CdTe photovoltaic technologies with respect to reducing cost per watt of solar energy conversion, these approaches rely on elements that are either costly and/or rare in the earth{\textquoteright}s crust (e.g., In, Ga, Te) or that present toxicity issues (e.g., Cd), thereby potentially limiting these technologies in terms of future cost reduction and production growth. In order to develop a photovoltaic technology that is truly compatible with terawatt deployment, it is desirable to consider material systems that employ less toxic and lower cost elements, while maintaining the advantages of the chalcopyrite and CdTe materials with respect to appropriate direct band gap tunability over the solar spectrum, high device performance (e.g., \>10\% power conversion efficiency) and compatibility with low-cost manufacturing. In this review, the development of kesterite-based Cu2ZnSn(S,Se)4 (CZTSSe) thin-film solar cells, in which the indium and gallium from \{CIGSSe\} are replaced by the readily available elements zinc and tin, will be reviewed. While vacuum-deposited devices have enabled optimization within the compositional phase space and yielded selenium-free \{CZTS\} device efficiencies of as high as 6.8\%, more recently a liquid-based approach has been described that has enabled deposition of \{CZTSSe\} devices with power conversion efficiency of 9.7\%, bringing the kesterite-based technology into a range of potential commercial interest. Electrical characterization studies on these high-performance \{CZTSSe\} cells reveal some of the key loss mechanisms (e.g., dominant interface recombination, high series resistance and low minority carrier lifetime) that limit the cell performance. Further elucidation of these mechanisms, as well as building an understanding of long-term device stability, are required to help propel this relatively new technology forward.}, keywords = {Solution processing}, issn = {0927-0248}, doi = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2010.11.028}, url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0927024810006719}, author = {David B. Mitzi and Oki Gunawan and Teodor K. Todorov and Kejia Wang and Supratik Guha} } @article {Green2009, title = {The path to 25\% silicon solar cell efficiency: History of silicon cell evolution}, journal = {Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications}, volume = {17}, year = {2009}, note = {
}, pages = {183-189}, author = {Martin A Green} } @article {Wurfel2005, title = {Physics of Solar Cells}, year = {2009}, note = {

1. Problems of the Energy Economy

2. Photons

3. Semiconductors

4. Conversion of Thermal Radiation into Chemical Energy

5. Conversion of Chemical Energy into Electrical Energy

6. Basic Structure of Solar Cells

7. Limitations on Energy Conversion in Solar Cells

8. Concepts for Improving the Efficiency of Solar Cells

9. Prospects for the Future

Solutions

Appendix

References

Index

}, pages = {183}, publisher = {Wiley-VCH}, edition = {2nd, updated and expanded edition}, address = {M{\"o}rlenbach, Germany}, isbn = {978-3-527-40857-3}, url = {http://www.amazon.com/Physics-Solar-Cells-Principles-Concepts/dp/3527404287}, author = {Peter W{\"u}rfel} } @article {Avellaneda2008, title = {Polymorphic Tin Sulfide Thin Films of Zinc Blende and Orthorhombic Structures by Chemical Deposition}, journal = {Journal of The Electrochemical Society}, volume = {155}, year = {2008}, month = {Jan-01-2008}, pages = {D517}, abstract = {Polycrystalline thin films (100{\textendash}450nm in thickness) of SnS formed from chemical baths of Sn(II) in acetic acid/HCl solution, triethanolamine, NH3 (aq), and thioacetamide are polymorphic consisting of zinc blende (ZB) and orthorhombic (OR) structures. The ZB structure for the SnS film, reported in this work for the first time, has a lattice constant a=0.579nm and a direct (forbidden) bandgap of 1.7eV , which is distinct from that of SnS(ZB) , about 1eV . The electrical conductivity of SnS(ZB) is 6{\texttimes}10-6 (Ωcm)-1 p-type, with activation energies for the conductivity of 0.5eV at room temperature and 1.6meV near 10K . When a SnS(ZB) film is heated in air at 500{\textdegree}C for 30min , part of it transforms to SnO2 and to SnS(OR) ; after 2h 30min at 550{\textdegree}C in air the film converts to transparent SnO2 . Such a film has a bandgap of 3.7eV and electrical conductivity, \~{}1 (Ωcm)-1 . Photovoltaic effect in different structures involving these films is presented. }, issn = {00134651}, doi = {10.1149/1.2917198}, url = {http://jes.ecsdl.org/cgi/doi/10.1149/1.2917198}, author = {Avellaneda, David and Nair, M. T. S. and Nair, P. K.} } @article {Chauhan2006, title = {Preparation and characterization of nanostructured CuO thin films for photoelectrochemical splitting of water}, journal = {Bulletin of Materials Science}, volume = {29}, year = {2006}, pages = {709}, author = {Chauhan, Diwakar and Satsangi, VR and Dass, Sahab and Shrivastav, Rohit} } @article {Fuyuki2005, title = {Photographic surveying of minority carrier diffusion length in polycrystalline silicon solar cells by electroluminescence}, journal = {Applied Physics Letters}, volume = {86}, number = {26}, year = {2005}, pages = {262108}, publisher = {AIP}, keywords = {carrier lifetime, electroluminescence, elemental semiconductors, MINORITY CARRIERS, SILICON, solar cells}, doi = {10.1063/1.1978979}, url = {http://link.aip.org/link/?APL/86/262108/1}, author = {Takashi Fuyuki and Hayato Kondo and Tsutomu Yamazaki and Yu Takahashi and Yukiharu Uraoka} } @article {Goetzberger2005, title = {Photovoltaic Solar Energy Generation}, year = {2005}, note = {

1. What is Photovoltaics?

2. Physics of Solar Cells

3. Silicon Solar Cell Material and Technology

4. Crystalline Thin-Film Silicon

5. Other Materials, New Concepts

6. Solar Cells and Solar Modules

7. PV Systems

8. PV Systems Installation Possibilities

9. Environmental Impacts by PV Systems

10. Efficinecy and Performance of PV Systems

11. PV Markets Support Measures and Costs

12. The Future PV

13. Other (Perhaps Competing) CO2-Free Energy Sources

14. Popular Killing Arguments Against PV

References

Index

}, pages = {232}, publisher = {Springer}, address = {Berlin, Germany}, isbn = {3-540-23676-7}, url = {http://www.amazon.com/Photovoltaic-Solar-Energy-Generation-Goetzberger/dp/3642062601/ref=sr_1_2?s=books\&ie=UTF8\&qid=1279649098\&sr=1-2}, author = {Adolf Goetzberger and Volker Uwe Hoffmann} } @article {Ehm2004, title = {Pressure-induced structural phase transition in the IV{\textendash}VI semiconductor SnS}, journal = {Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter}, volume = {16}, year = {2004}, month = {Feb-06-2004}, pages = {3545 - 3554}, abstract = {The structural behaviour of SnS under high-pressure has been investigated by angular dispersive synchrotron powder diffraction up to 38.5 GPa. A structural phase transition from orthorhombic α-SnS to monoclinic γ-SnS was observed at 18.15 GPa. The fit of a Birch{\textendash}Murnaghan equation-of-state gave the volume at zero pressure of V0 = 192.6(3) {\r A}3, the bulk modulus at zero pressure of B0 = 36.6(9) GPa and the pressure derivative of the bulk modulus B{\textquoteright}=5.5(2) for α-SnS and V0 = 160(1) {\r A}, B0 = 86.0(5) GPa and B{\textquoteright}=4 for γ-SnS. The improper ferro-elastic transition is of first-order and is accompanied by a large volume discontinuity of about 9.1\%. The phase transition can be described in terms of a group/subgroup relationship. The doubling of the unit cell indicates a wavevector (1/2,0,1/2) at the U-point in the Brillouin zone.}, issn = {0953-8984}, doi = {10.1088/0953-8984/16/21/004}, url = {http://stacks.iop.org/0953-8984/16/i=21/a=004?key=crossref.fbc017dcad3d417136827c57d4ea2141}, author = {Ehm, L and Knorr, K and Dera, P and Krimmel, A and Bouvier, P and Mezouar, M} } @article {Nelson2003, title = {The Physics of Solar Cells}, year = {2003}, note = {

1. Introduction

2. Photons In, Electrons Out: Basic Principles of PV

3. Electrons and Holes and Semiconductors

4. Generation and Recombination

5. Junctions

6. Analysis of the p-n Junction

7. Monocrystalline Solar Cells

8. Thin Film Solar Cells

9. Managing Light

10. Over the Limit: Strategies for High Efficiency

Solutions

Index

}, pages = {355}, publisher = {Imperial College Press}, address = {London, UK}, abstract = {
}, isbn = {1-86094-340-3}, url = {http://www.amazon.com/Physics-Solar-Properties-Semiconductor-Materials/dp/1860943497}, author = {Jenny Nelson} } @article {wooster1953, title = {Physical properties and atomic arrangements in crystals}, journal = {Reports on Progress in Physics}, volume = {16}, year = {2002}, month = {May-08-2002}, pages = {62 - 82}, issn = {00344885}, doi = {10.1088/0034-4885/16/1/302}, url = {http://stacks.iop.org/0034-4885/16/i=1/a=302?key=crossref.19db72555e28e5cd250540ab6a946500}, author = {Wooster, W A} } @article {Yoon2000, title = {Photoelectrochemical properties of copper oxide thin films coated on an n-Si substrate}, journal = {Thin Solid Films}, volume = {372}, year = {2000}, pages = {250 - 256}, abstract = {The photoelectrochemical properties of the copper oxide thin film coated on the n-type silicon electrode were investigated as a function of film deposition temperature. The variation in the deposition temperature affected the film morphology and the ratio of copper to oxygen. In case of the films deposited below 200{\textdegree}C, the main phase was found to be CuO while the amount of the Cu2O phase increased with further increases in deposition temperature. The n-silicon photoelectrode showed enhanced photocurrent{\textendash}potential (I{\textendash}V) properties by forming a copper oxide/n-silicon heterojunction. In particular, the electrode, which mainly consisted of a CuO phase, showed better photoelectrochemical conversion efficiencies compared to the Cu2O phase. This result was explained in terms of the electrical conductance and transmittance of the copper oxide film.}, keywords = {XPS}, issn = {0040-6090}, doi = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0040-6090(00)01058-0}, url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040609000010580}, author = {Ki Hyun Yoon and Woo Jin Choi and Dong Heon Kang} } @article {thomas1999, title = {Photoeffects in cobalt doped pyrite (FeS 2 ) films}, journal = {Solid State Communications}, volume = {111}, year = {1999}, month = {Jan-07-1999}, pages = {235 - 240}, issn = {00381098}, doi = {10.1016/S0038-1098(99)00213-6}, url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0038109899002136http://api.elsevier.com/content/article/PII:S0038109899002136?httpAccept=text/plainhttp://api.elsevier.com/content/article/PII:S0038109899002136?httpAccept=text/xml}, author = {Thomas, B. and Ellmer, K. and Bohne, W. and R{\"o}hrich, J. and Kunst, M. and Tributsch, H.} } @article {Mane1999, title = {Photoelectrochemical cells based on chemically deposited nanocrystalline Bi2S3 thin films}, journal = {Materials Chemistry and Physics}, volume = {60}, year = {1999}, month = {Jan-08-1999}, pages = {196 - 203}, issn = {02540584}, doi = {10.1016/S0254-0584(99)00085-1}, url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0254058499000851}, author = {Mane, R.S. and Sankapal, B.R. and Lokhande, C.D.} } @article {Lokhande1998, title = {Process and characterisation of chemical bath deposited manganese sulphide (MnS) thin films}, journal = {Thin Solid Films}, volume = {330}, year = {1998}, month = {Jan-09-1998}, pages = {70 - 75}, issn = {00406090}, doi = {10.1016/S0040-6090(98)00500-8}, url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0040609098005008}, author = {Lokhande, C.D. and Ennaoui, A. and Patil, P.S. and Giersig, M. and Muller, M. and Diesner, K. and Tributsch, H.} } @article {Katagiri1997, title = {Preparation and evaluation of Cu2ZnSnS4 thin films by sulfurization of E-B evaporated precursors}, journal = {Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells}, volume = {49}, year = {1997}, pages = {407 - 414}, abstract = {By sulfurization of EB evaporated precursors, CZTS(Cu2ZnSnS4) films could be prepared successfully. This semiconductor does not consist of any rare-metal such as In. The X-ray diffraction pattern of CZTS thin films showed that these films had a stannite structure. This study estimated the optical band gap energy as 1.45 eV. The optical absorption coefficient was in the order of 104cm-1. The resistivity was in the the order of 104 Ω cm and the conduction type was p-type. Fabricated solar cells, Al/ZnO/CdS/CZTS/Mo/Soda Lime Glass, showed an open-circuit voltage up to 400 mV.}, keywords = {EB evaporated precursors}, issn = {0927-0248}, doi = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0927-0248(97)00119-0}, url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0927024897001190}, author = {Hironori Katagiri and Nobuyuki Sasaguchi and Shima Hando and Suguro Hoshino and Jiro Ohashi and Takaharu Yokota} } @article {Chandramohan1997, title = {Preparation of Zinc Selenide Thin Films by Electrodeposition Technique for Solar Cell Applications}, journal = {physica status solidi (a)}, volume = {163}, year = {1997}, month = {Jan-10-1997}, pages = {R11 - R12}, issn = {00318965}, doi = {10.1002/(ISSN)1521-396X10.1002/1521-396X(199710)163:2<>1.0.CO;2-U10.1002/1521-396X(199710)163:23.0.CO;2-3}, author = {Chandramohan, R. and Sanjeeviraja, C. and Mahalingam, T.} } @proceedings {Green1990, title = {Photovoltaics: Coming of Age}, year = {1990}, note = {
}, month = {05/1990}, pages = {1-8}, address = {Orlando, USA}, abstract = {The history of photovoltaic development is reviewed. An outline of the potential of the technology as the author views it is given. The challenge to be met to reach this potential is to develop high-efficiency technologies which can be produced at low cost. Three factors suggest this is possible. The first is the latent efficiency still to be recovered with even the most highly developed cell technologies. The second is the recent progress with tandem cells, which suggests that most of the 30-40\% efficiency advantage over single-junction devices will eventually be realized. Tandem cells are likely to offer cost advantages in very high volume production. The third is the pyramid of possibilities, the wide range of semiconductors which still have to be evaluated for their photovoltaic potential.}, doi = {10.1109/PVSC.1990.111582}, url = {http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/lpdocs/epic03/wrapper.htm?arnumber=111582}, author = {Martin A Green} } @book {Sekuler1985, title = {Perception}, year = {1985}, note = {
}, publisher = {Alfred A. Knopf Inc}, organization = {Alfred A. Knopf Inc}, address = {New York}, author = {Sekuler, R. and Blake, R.} } @book {seri1984, title = {Photovoltaics for Residential Applications}, year = {1984}, note = {
}, publisher = {Solar Energy Research Institute}, organization = {Solar Energy Research Institute}, address = {Golden, Colorado}, author = {SERI} } @article {Hu1983-2, title = {On Phosphorus Diffusion in Silicon}, journal = {On Phosphorus Diffusion in Silicon}, volume = {54}, year = {1983}, note = {
}, pages = {6912-6922}, author = {S.M. Hu and P. Fahey and P. Sutton} } @article {Fossum1977, title = {Physical operation of back-surface-field silicon solar cells}, journal = {IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices}, volume = {24}, number = {4}, year = {1977}, month = {04/1977}, pages = {322 - 325}, abstract = {

Using exact numerical solutions of carrier transport in the back-surface-field silicon solar cell both for guidance and for verification, the physical mechanisms effective in this device are identified and explained. Concise analytical descriptions of the cell performance, based on the pertinent device physics, are formulated.

}, issn = {0018-9383}, author = {Fossum, J.G.} } @article {Furuseth1965, title = {On the Properties of alpha-MnS and MnS2.}, journal = {Acta Chemica Scandinavica}, volume = {19}, year = {1965}, month = {Jan-01-1965}, pages = {1405 - 1410}, issn = {0904-213X}, doi = {10.3891/acta.chem.scand.19-1405}, url = {http://actachemscand.org/doi/10.3891/acta.chem.scand.19-1405}, author = {Furuseth, Sigrid and Kjekshus, Arne and Niklasson, Rune J. V. and Brunvoll, J. and Hinton, Merv} } @article {Bube1958, title = {Photoconductivity of Zinc Selenide Crystals and a Correlation of Donor and Acceptor Levels in II-VI Photoconductors}, journal = {Phys. Rev.}, volume = {110}, year = {1958}, month = {Jun}, pages = {1040{\textendash}1049}, abstract = {Photosensitive crystals of zinc selenide have been prepared by incorporating suitable proportions of Group VII donors (e.g., bromine) and either Group I acceptors (copper or silver) or Group V acceptors (antimony or arsenic) in crystals prepared from the vapor phase. Photoconductivity phenomena characteristic of other II-VI photoconductors, such as (a) variation of photocurrent with a power of light intensity greater than unity, (b) temperature quenching of photoconductivity, and (c) infrared quenching of photoconductivity, are also found for zinc selenide. Sensitizing centers in ZnSe: Br: Cu and ZnSe: Br: Ag have levels lying at the same distance above the top of the valence band (0.6 ev) as sensitizing centers in CdSe, even though the band gap of ZnSe is 50\% larger than that of CdSe. Crystals with Group V acceptors are characterized in addition by a long-wavelength spectral response, out to 1.4 microns, associated with levels lying about 1.3 ev above the top of the valence band. By a consideration of known data on the conductivity, photoconductivity, and luminescence of II-VI compounds, a consistent correlation of donor and acceptor levels in these materials is possible.}, doi = {10.1103/PhysRev.110.1040}, url = {http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRev.110.1040}, author = {Bube, Richard H. and Lind, Edward L.} } @article {Kingsbury1952, title = {Photoelectric Properties of Tonically Bombarded Silicon}, journal = {Bell Systems Technical Journal}, volume = {31}, year = {1952}, note = {
}, pages = {802-815}, author = {Kingsbury, E.F. and Ohl, R.S.} }